1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?
- The amount of time I spent on the compendiums.
- I like my tables in the lab project.
- Acknowledging that I need to make some changes in my life.
2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?
- I need to spend a little less time on the online labs, and devote more time to the ethical issue.
- I think the conclusion to my lab project could have been better.
3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit?
A
4. How could I perform better in the next unit?
Start the ethical essay and the lab project right away.
Showing posts with label Unit 2 - The Body: Internal Maintenance. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Unit 2 - The Body: Internal Maintenance. Show all posts
Friday, June 27, 2008
Unit 2 Ethical Essay: Food
When I was growing up in my parents house with my 3 sisters, dinner time was an event. It was a group affair. Mom would start dinner. She stayed at home while my dad worked on the farm all day. She made everything from scratch. The four of us would trickle in to help set up the table.
She would yell at us for snacking out of the salad bowl before dinner started. I distincly remember getting my hand slapped for that on more than one occasion. That was and still is one of her biggest pet peeves. Every night we would sit down to the best dinner one of the smallest kitchens (sans T.V.) in existance. We would eat and talk and tease each other.
Occasionally, the teasing would lead into a small food fight. Yes, I am embarrassed to say that I may have missed one of my sisters now and then and regrettably ended up whipping jello on the wall of my parents kitchen. Laughter would erupt; we would get into trouble. We would have to clean the whole kitchen including the walls, by ourselves.
Fast-forward 20 years. My husband and I both work. We both love mountain biking...for the workout, the freedom, the time spent in nature, the smell of the pines, the feel of the air, for the rush. It is a blast. We both feel so lucky to have a hobby that we both love. We can do it together and it is good for us. It gets us outside.
The downside to having jobs and having a hobby that we both like and can spend an endless amount of time doing, is that our time around the dinner table suffers. We tend to make a large portion of something once or twice a week and eat the leftovers for a few days. The good thing is that we love Mexican food. We have probably eaten burritos for dinner 80% of the time over the last year. We are using fairly heathly ingredients (chicken, blackbeans, corn, cilantro, tomatoes, cheese, potatoes), but some of them come from a can instead of being fresh. We also love to have salad every night.
Regardless of what we eat for dinner, we do not spend the time at the dinner table like I did when I was little. It feels like we get home and race through dinner so we can sit down and relax. We need to change our mind set so that we incorporate relaxation into our meal instead of hurrying through it.
I also love the idea of buying locally and eventually growing some of my own produce. I need to figure out how to make that a part of my life. The websites from the link for this essay are a great way to get started.
She would yell at us for snacking out of the salad bowl before dinner started. I distincly remember getting my hand slapped for that on more than one occasion. That was and still is one of her biggest pet peeves. Every night we would sit down to the best dinner one of the smallest kitchens (sans T.V.) in existance. We would eat and talk and tease each other.
Occasionally, the teasing would lead into a small food fight. Yes, I am embarrassed to say that I may have missed one of my sisters now and then and regrettably ended up whipping jello on the wall of my parents kitchen. Laughter would erupt; we would get into trouble. We would have to clean the whole kitchen including the walls, by ourselves.
Fast-forward 20 years. My husband and I both work. We both love mountain biking...for the workout, the freedom, the time spent in nature, the smell of the pines, the feel of the air, for the rush. It is a blast. We both feel so lucky to have a hobby that we both love. We can do it together and it is good for us. It gets us outside.
The downside to having jobs and having a hobby that we both like and can spend an endless amount of time doing, is that our time around the dinner table suffers. We tend to make a large portion of something once or twice a week and eat the leftovers for a few days. The good thing is that we love Mexican food. We have probably eaten burritos for dinner 80% of the time over the last year. We are using fairly heathly ingredients (chicken, blackbeans, corn, cilantro, tomatoes, cheese, potatoes), but some of them come from a can instead of being fresh. We also love to have salad every night.
Regardless of what we eat for dinner, we do not spend the time at the dinner table like I did when I was little. It feels like we get home and race through dinner so we can sit down and relax. We need to change our mind set so that we incorporate relaxation into our meal instead of hurrying through it.
I also love the idea of buying locally and eventually growing some of my own produce. I need to figure out how to make that a part of my life. The websites from the link for this essay are a great way to get started.
Unit 2 Lab Project: Exercise Physiology
note: click on any image to view full size
INTRODUCTION
Delivery of oxygen: Possibly the single most important function of the blood that runs through our vessels. We breath air in, the blood in our lungs picks up the oxygen, and after a quick run back through the heart, that oxygenated blood is pumped out to the tissues of the body. The oxygen we breath allows our cells to carry on the never ending cycle of work that they do to keep us alive. Oxygen is part of the final step cellular respiration, the process by which our mitochondria produce ATP, the energy currency of our cells.
The purpose of this lab was to understand the impact that different activities have on basic metabolic rates. Different activities require more or less from our cells. More strenuous activities require more energy; more energy produciton requires more oxygen. The rates we were to measure were pulse, respirations, and systolic and diastolic blood pressures. We were to select 3 different activities to perform. After completing each activity, we were to measure the 4 metabolic rates and compare the mean of each to the mean of our baseline rates.
HYPOTHESIS
HOW DO I THINK MY METABOLIC RATES WILL COMPARE TO BASELINE AFTER....?
My hypotheses are listed in the table below.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
I borrowed a Mabis SmartRead blood pressure monitor from my aunt. This piece of equipment measured systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and pulse. The photo below shows the monitor with the cuff wrapped around my bicep. Once the cuff is wrapped tightly around the bicep, there is a blue button that you push. The monitor fulls the cuff with air, slowly releases the air, and provides the readings in the digital display.
To measure my respirations per minute, I used my wristwatch that has a second hand. As the blood pressure monitor was taking my other metabolic measurements, I would keep an eye on my wristwatch and count the number of respirations in 30 seconds. I then took that number and multiplied by 2 to determine the number of respirations per minute.
The first activity I chose was eating. The picture below is of me and my dad getting ready to eat breakfast.
The second activity I chose was a 1 mile time trial on my bike. The picture below is of me riding after I completed the second repetition.
The third activity I chose was a brisk walk around the block. The picture below is of me walking after I completed my first repetition.
DATA
The table below shows the raw data. Included are all four metabolic rates at baseline (5 reps) and after each of the 3 activities (4 reps). Also included is the mean for each.
GRAPH: Mean pulse - baseline and 3 activities
GRAPH: Mean respirations - baseline and 3 activities
GRAPH: Mean systolic blood pressure - baseline and 3 activities
GRAPH: Mean diastolic blood pressure - baseline and 3 activities
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Where my predictions correct?
In the discussion below, when I refer to any of the metabolic rates, I am referring to the mean.
I hypothesized that my pulse would go up as compared to my baseline after each of the 3 activities (eating, biking, walking). I was incorrect when I hypothesized that my pulse would go up after eating. In fact, my baseline pulse and my pulse after eating were the same. My hypotheses about my pulse going up after biking and after walking were both correct.
For respiration rate, I predicted that it would stay the same after eating and go up after biking and after walking. All 3 predictions were correct.
I hypothesized that for systolic blood pressure, each of the 3 activities would cause it to go up. My hypothesis for eating was incorrect. In fact, my baseline and after eating systolic blood pressure were the same. My hypotheses for biking and walking were both correct.
For diastolic blood pressure, I predicted that it would go down after eating and go up after biking and walking. All three of these predictions were correct.
PROBLEMS WITH DATA OR TECHNIQUE
I did encounter a few issues during this experiment.
1. Error message on blood pressure machine - After completing the second repetition of my walk, I tried to measure my blood pressure the monitor gave me an error message. I had to take a second reading which allowed all of my metabolic rates to decrease towards baseline.
2. Time lapse - After my first bike ride, I had to walk into the house to take all 4measurements. Again, this delay allowed my body time to recover. After this I left all necessary equipment in the garage for quick use after biking or walking.
3. Time of day - I took baseline measurements at different times of the day, because I figured my activities would be performed at different times of the day. Ideally, measurements for baseline and all activities would be performed at the same time every day, as baseline metabolic rates vary throughout the day (ie - pulse and blood pressure is lowest in the morning).
4. Measuring respirations - It is very difficult to take this measurement on your own. As soon as you concentrate on counting the number of respirations, you are aware of your breathing rhythm. It is very easy to voluntarily control this rate without meaning to.
CONCLUSION
In general, physical activities are going to increase metabolic rates. These activities consume energy more quickly than sedentary activities do. In response, your body needs to get more oxygen to its cells more quickly. You start breathing harder/faster(respirations) and your heart starts pumping faster (pulse) to move the oxygenated blood to your tissues faster. The faster rate of blood flow causes your blood pressure to rise.
INTRODUCTION
Delivery of oxygen: Possibly the single most important function of the blood that runs through our vessels. We breath air in, the blood in our lungs picks up the oxygen, and after a quick run back through the heart, that oxygenated blood is pumped out to the tissues of the body. The oxygen we breath allows our cells to carry on the never ending cycle of work that they do to keep us alive. Oxygen is part of the final step cellular respiration, the process by which our mitochondria produce ATP, the energy currency of our cells.
The purpose of this lab was to understand the impact that different activities have on basic metabolic rates. Different activities require more or less from our cells. More strenuous activities require more energy; more energy produciton requires more oxygen. The rates we were to measure were pulse, respirations, and systolic and diastolic blood pressures. We were to select 3 different activities to perform. After completing each activity, we were to measure the 4 metabolic rates and compare the mean of each to the mean of our baseline rates.
HYPOTHESIS
HOW DO I THINK MY METABOLIC RATES WILL COMPARE TO BASELINE AFTER....?
My hypotheses are listed in the table below.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
I borrowed a Mabis SmartRead blood pressure monitor from my aunt. This piece of equipment measured systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and pulse. The photo below shows the monitor with the cuff wrapped around my bicep. Once the cuff is wrapped tightly around the bicep, there is a blue button that you push. The monitor fulls the cuff with air, slowly releases the air, and provides the readings in the digital display.
To measure my respirations per minute, I used my wristwatch that has a second hand. As the blood pressure monitor was taking my other metabolic measurements, I would keep an eye on my wristwatch and count the number of respirations in 30 seconds. I then took that number and multiplied by 2 to determine the number of respirations per minute.
The first activity I chose was eating. The picture below is of me and my dad getting ready to eat breakfast.
The second activity I chose was a 1 mile time trial on my bike. The picture below is of me riding after I completed the second repetition.
The third activity I chose was a brisk walk around the block. The picture below is of me walking after I completed my first repetition.
DATA
The table below shows the raw data. Included are all four metabolic rates at baseline (5 reps) and after each of the 3 activities (4 reps). Also included is the mean for each.
GRAPH: Mean pulse - baseline and 3 activities
GRAPH: Mean respirations - baseline and 3 activities
GRAPH: Mean systolic blood pressure - baseline and 3 activities
GRAPH: Mean diastolic blood pressure - baseline and 3 activities
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Where my predictions correct?
In the discussion below, when I refer to any of the metabolic rates, I am referring to the mean.
I hypothesized that my pulse would go up as compared to my baseline after each of the 3 activities (eating, biking, walking). I was incorrect when I hypothesized that my pulse would go up after eating. In fact, my baseline pulse and my pulse after eating were the same. My hypotheses about my pulse going up after biking and after walking were both correct.
For respiration rate, I predicted that it would stay the same after eating and go up after biking and after walking. All 3 predictions were correct.
I hypothesized that for systolic blood pressure, each of the 3 activities would cause it to go up. My hypothesis for eating was incorrect. In fact, my baseline and after eating systolic blood pressure were the same. My hypotheses for biking and walking were both correct.
For diastolic blood pressure, I predicted that it would go down after eating and go up after biking and walking. All three of these predictions were correct.
PROBLEMS WITH DATA OR TECHNIQUE
I did encounter a few issues during this experiment.
1. Error message on blood pressure machine - After completing the second repetition of my walk, I tried to measure my blood pressure the monitor gave me an error message. I had to take a second reading which allowed all of my metabolic rates to decrease towards baseline.
2. Time lapse - After my first bike ride, I had to walk into the house to take all 4measurements. Again, this delay allowed my body time to recover. After this I left all necessary equipment in the garage for quick use after biking or walking.
3. Time of day - I took baseline measurements at different times of the day, because I figured my activities would be performed at different times of the day. Ideally, measurements for baseline and all activities would be performed at the same time every day, as baseline metabolic rates vary throughout the day (ie - pulse and blood pressure is lowest in the morning).
4. Measuring respirations - It is very difficult to take this measurement on your own. As soon as you concentrate on counting the number of respirations, you are aware of your breathing rhythm. It is very easy to voluntarily control this rate without meaning to.
CONCLUSION
In general, physical activities are going to increase metabolic rates. These activities consume energy more quickly than sedentary activities do. In response, your body needs to get more oxygen to its cells more quickly. You start breathing harder/faster(respirations) and your heart starts pumping faster (pulse) to move the oxygenated blood to your tissues faster. The faster rate of blood flow causes your blood pressure to rise.
Wednesday, June 25, 2008
Unit 2, Online Lab #2: A Day of Food
My screen shot from the Balance Mind, Body and Soul website.
-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?
I think this is a fairly healthy diet. It's pretty well-rounded...fruit, vegetables, whole grains, poultry, dairy. It does not include too much processed food.
-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?
I did not like the sodium intake at all! The saturated fat is higher than I expected as well. This day was somewhat unusual in that I had lunch meat, which I do not normally have. Pasta is not an unusual meal for me, but pasta with sausage is. Those two items really up'd the sodium. Bottom line, I would like to see much lower sodium and saturated fat intake.
-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?
I think it's great. In general, I think I have pretty healthy eating habits, but this kind of site lets you know exactly where you stand. What I don't like about this particular site is that (I'm assuming) the nutrition information is based on Sodexo's recipes. I very rarely add salt when I cook. I am assuming again that Sodexo probably prepares their dishes with more salt than I use. This exercise had definitely peaked my interest in nutritional tracking. I would like to use a site that allows me more control of all the ingredients....but at the same time that seems a bit overwhelming! And it might also defeat the purpose. I think the intention here is to give a person a general idea of what kind of diet he or she she has, not to get bogged down with the minutia.
-How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?
I think this is a fairly healthy diet. It's pretty well-rounded...fruit, vegetables, whole grains, poultry, dairy. It does not include too much processed food.
-What would you change about this day's eating, if anything?
I did not like the sodium intake at all! The saturated fat is higher than I expected as well. This day was somewhat unusual in that I had lunch meat, which I do not normally have. Pasta is not an unusual meal for me, but pasta with sausage is. Those two items really up'd the sodium. Bottom line, I would like to see much lower sodium and saturated fat intake.
-Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not?
I think it's great. In general, I think I have pretty healthy eating habits, but this kind of site lets you know exactly where you stand. What I don't like about this particular site is that (I'm assuming) the nutrition information is based on Sodexo's recipes. I very rarely add salt when I cook. I am assuming again that Sodexo probably prepares their dishes with more salt than I use. This exercise had definitely peaked my interest in nutritional tracking. I would like to use a site that allows me more control of all the ingredients....but at the same time that seems a bit overwhelming! And it might also defeat the purpose. I think the intention here is to give a person a general idea of what kind of diet he or she she has, not to get bogged down with the minutia.
Tuesday, June 24, 2008
Compendium Review Unit 2 Major Topic: Nutrition
Nutrition
Table of Contents
I. Digestive System and Nutrition
II. Converting Food into Energy
I. Digestive System and Nutrition
A. Overview of Digestion
1. Ingestion, digestion, movement, absorption, elimination
2. Wall of the digestive tract
a. mucosa (mucous membrane) - lines tract, protects wall from enzymes, contains glands in mouth, stomach, & small intestine, diverticulitis (pouches in mucosa)
b. submucosa - broad band of connective tissue, contains blood & lymphatic vessels & nerves, inflammatory bowel disease (colitis, inflammatory response)
c. muscularis - 2 layers of smooth muscle (circular & longitudinal), moves GI contents, irritable bowel syndrome (spastic colon, contractions of wall)
d. serosa (serous membrane) - secret serous fluid, part of peritoneum, appendicitis can lead to peritonitis
Figure 8.1 from the text shows an overview of the human GI tract
B. First Part of the Digestive Tract
1. The mouth
a. mechanical (teeth and tongue) and chemical (saliva)
2. The pharynx and esophagus
a. swallowing - voluntary and involuntary (once food pushed back into pharynx)
b. peristalsis - rhythmic contraction that pushes food along esophagus
Figure 8.4 from the text shows the path of a bolus as it moves through the first part of the GI tract.
C. The Stomach and Small Intestine
1. The stomach
a. continuous with esophagus and duadenum of small intestine
b. stores food, initiates digestion of protein, controls movement of chyme
c. muscularis contains 3 layers of smooth muscle - circular, longitudinal, oblique
d. mucosa has rugae & gastric pits -> gastric glands -> gastric juice (pepsin,HCl, mucus)
2. The small intestine
a. 18ft long
b. digestion completed here
c. duodenum receives enzymes from pancreas and bile from liver and gallbladder
d. nutrients (sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol) absorbed by sm intestine
e. villi and microvilli increase surface area for absorption
3. Lactose intolerance sufferers lack enzyme, lactase
4. Obesity: diabetes type 2 and cardiovascular disease
a. cells become resistant to insulin and can't utilize glucose
Figure 8.5 from the text illustrates the structure and function of the stomach, table 8.1 which lists the major digestive enzymes, and figure 8.6 which depidcts the anatomy of the small intestine can be found here for later reference. Figure 8.7 which shows digestion and aborption of nutrients is shown below.
D. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions
1. Three accessory organs
a. pancreas - produces pancreatic juice into duodenum, secrets insulin into blood
b. liver - cleanses blood, stores iron & vitamins, stores glucose, breaks down glycogen, converts glycerol & amino acids to glucose, urea is byproduct, makes plasma proteins
c. gallbladder - stores bile
d. liver disorders - hepatitis, cirrhosis,
2. Regulation of digestive secretions
a. controlled by nervous system and by digestive hormones
Figure 8.8 from the text illustrates the three accessory organs.
E. The Large Intestine and Defecation
1. Functions of the large intestine
a. absorbs water
b. intestinal flora produce vitamins which are absorbed by the large intestine
c. forms feces
d. defecation
2. Disorders of the colon and rectum
a. diarrhea, constipation, hemorrhoids, diverticulosis, IBS, IBD, polyps, cancer
Figure 8.10 from the text shows the anatomy of the large intestine.
F. Nutrition and Weight Control
1. How obesity is defined
a. body mass index - looks at height and weight
2. Classes of nutrients
a. carbohydrates - simple (eg glucose) complex (body breaks down to glucose)
b. complex carbohydrates better than refined grains
c. proteins - digested to amino acids
d. 8 essential amino acids - daily supply needed
e. lipids - best sources - oils
f. polyunsaturated (contain essential fatty acids)- corn and safflower
g. monounsaturated - olive and canola
3. Minerals
a. trace - body contains less than 5 grams, major - body contains more than 5 grams
b. calcium - construct bones & teeth, nerve conduction, muscle contraction
c. sodium - regulates body's water balance
4. Vitamins
a. 13 vitamins - 4 fat-soluble, 9 water-soluble
b. some are portions of enzymes, others precursors
c. antioxidants - vit. C, E, & A believed to defend the body against free radicals
d. vitamin D - after modification in kidneys & liver, promotes the absorption of calcium by the intestines
5. How to plan nutritious meals
a. eat a variety of foods
b. eat more fruits and vegetables
c. eat less food with saturated or trans fat, sugar, cholesterol, salt, alcohol
d. exercise
e. eat less processed foods
6. Eating disorders
a. anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, muscle dysmorphia
II. Converting Food into Energy
A. Glycolysis1. Glucose converted to pyruvate
2. NET result of single glycolysis run 2 NADH, 2 ATP
3. Lactic acid is end end product under anaerobic conditions
4. 6-Carbon sugar diphospate split into 2 3-Carbon sugar phospate molecules
5. Aerobic conditions, pyruvate is further oxidized to yield more ATP
B. Krebs Cycle1. Occurs in mitochondrion
2. Acetyl-CoA from pyruvate enters Krebs Cycle
3. Single turn of cycle yields 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
4. Initial reaction involves addition of a 2-Carbon to a 4-Carbon molecule
C. Electron transport chain
1. Electrons are accepted in the following order: cytochrome c, cytochrome c oxidase, oxygen
2. Electrons transferred through the chain originally belonged to NADH and FADH2
3. Movement of protons through ATP synthase: from intermembrane space into matrix
4. Water is produced when oxygent accepts electrons
5. Oxidative phosphorylation is the production of ATP from ADP plus phosphate. The energy used is derived from the movement of proton from the intermembrane space to the matrix
D. How NAD+ Works
1. Cells obtain energy by oxidizing food molecules
2. Coenzyme NAD is reduced NAD+ + H -> NADH
3. Hydrogen atom consists of a proton and an electron
4. Reduction is the addition of an electron, oxidation is the removal of an electron
5. When one molecule is reduced another must be oxidized
6. NADH serves as an electron carrier that can donate its hydrogen
Definitions for chapter 8 can be found here.
REFERENCES:
Mader, Syliva S. Human Biology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill (2008).
Links provided throughout the summary take you to online sources.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Any time "text" or "the text" is referenced in the above summary, I am referring to the textbook Human Biology by Sylvia Mader (cited directly above).
Table of Contents
I. Digestive System and Nutrition
II. Converting Food into Energy
I. Digestive System and Nutrition
A. Overview of Digestion
1. Ingestion, digestion, movement, absorption, elimination
2. Wall of the digestive tract
a. mucosa (mucous membrane) - lines tract, protects wall from enzymes, contains glands in mouth, stomach, & small intestine, diverticulitis (pouches in mucosa)
b. submucosa - broad band of connective tissue, contains blood & lymphatic vessels & nerves, inflammatory bowel disease (colitis, inflammatory response)
c. muscularis - 2 layers of smooth muscle (circular & longitudinal), moves GI contents, irritable bowel syndrome (spastic colon, contractions of wall)
d. serosa (serous membrane) - secret serous fluid, part of peritoneum, appendicitis can lead to peritonitis
Figure 8.1 from the text shows an overview of the human GI tract
B. First Part of the Digestive Tract1. The mouth
a. mechanical (teeth and tongue) and chemical (saliva)
2. The pharynx and esophagus
a. swallowing - voluntary and involuntary (once food pushed back into pharynx)
b. peristalsis - rhythmic contraction that pushes food along esophagus
Figure 8.4 from the text shows the path of a bolus as it moves through the first part of the GI tract.
C. The Stomach and Small Intestine1. The stomach
a. continuous with esophagus and duadenum of small intestine
b. stores food, initiates digestion of protein, controls movement of chyme
c. muscularis contains 3 layers of smooth muscle - circular, longitudinal, oblique
d. mucosa has rugae & gastric pits -> gastric glands -> gastric juice (pepsin,HCl, mucus)
2. The small intestine
a. 18ft long
b. digestion completed here
c. duodenum receives enzymes from pancreas and bile from liver and gallbladder
d. nutrients (sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol) absorbed by sm intestine
e. villi and microvilli increase surface area for absorption
3. Lactose intolerance sufferers lack enzyme, lactase
4. Obesity: diabetes type 2 and cardiovascular disease
a. cells become resistant to insulin and can't utilize glucose
Figure 8.5 from the text illustrates the structure and function of the stomach, table 8.1 which lists the major digestive enzymes, and figure 8.6 which depidcts the anatomy of the small intestine can be found here for later reference. Figure 8.7 which shows digestion and aborption of nutrients is shown below.
D. Three Accessory Organs and Regulation of Secretions1. Three accessory organs
a. pancreas - produces pancreatic juice into duodenum, secrets insulin into blood
b. liver - cleanses blood, stores iron & vitamins, stores glucose, breaks down glycogen, converts glycerol & amino acids to glucose, urea is byproduct, makes plasma proteins
c. gallbladder - stores bile
d. liver disorders - hepatitis, cirrhosis,
2. Regulation of digestive secretions
a. controlled by nervous system and by digestive hormones
Figure 8.8 from the text illustrates the three accessory organs.
E. The Large Intestine and Defecation1. Functions of the large intestine
a. absorbs water
b. intestinal flora produce vitamins which are absorbed by the large intestine
c. forms feces
d. defecation
2. Disorders of the colon and rectum
a. diarrhea, constipation, hemorrhoids, diverticulosis, IBS, IBD, polyps, cancer
Figure 8.10 from the text shows the anatomy of the large intestine.
F. Nutrition and Weight Control1. How obesity is defined
a. body mass index - looks at height and weight
2. Classes of nutrients
a. carbohydrates - simple (eg glucose) complex (body breaks down to glucose)
b. complex carbohydrates better than refined grains
c. proteins - digested to amino acids
d. 8 essential amino acids - daily supply needed
e. lipids - best sources - oils
f. polyunsaturated (contain essential fatty acids)- corn and safflower
g. monounsaturated - olive and canola
3. Minerals
a. trace - body contains less than 5 grams, major - body contains more than 5 grams
b. calcium - construct bones & teeth, nerve conduction, muscle contraction
c. sodium - regulates body's water balance
4. Vitamins
a. 13 vitamins - 4 fat-soluble, 9 water-soluble
b. some are portions of enzymes, others precursors
c. antioxidants - vit. C, E, & A believed to defend the body against free radicals
d. vitamin D - after modification in kidneys & liver, promotes the absorption of calcium by the intestines
5. How to plan nutritious meals
a. eat a variety of foods
b. eat more fruits and vegetables
c. eat less food with saturated or trans fat, sugar, cholesterol, salt, alcohol
d. exercise
e. eat less processed foods
6. Eating disorders
a. anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge-eating disorder, muscle dysmorphia
II. Converting Food into Energy
A. Glycolysis1. Glucose converted to pyruvate
2. NET result of single glycolysis run 2 NADH, 2 ATP
3. Lactic acid is end end product under anaerobic conditions
4. 6-Carbon sugar diphospate split into 2 3-Carbon sugar phospate molecules
5. Aerobic conditions, pyruvate is further oxidized to yield more ATP
B. Krebs Cycle1. Occurs in mitochondrion
2. Acetyl-CoA from pyruvate enters Krebs Cycle
3. Single turn of cycle yields 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
4. Initial reaction involves addition of a 2-Carbon to a 4-Carbon molecule
C. Electron transport chain
1. Electrons are accepted in the following order: cytochrome c, cytochrome c oxidase, oxygen
2. Electrons transferred through the chain originally belonged to NADH and FADH2
3. Movement of protons through ATP synthase: from intermembrane space into matrix
4. Water is produced when oxygent accepts electrons
5. Oxidative phosphorylation is the production of ATP from ADP plus phosphate. The energy used is derived from the movement of proton from the intermembrane space to the matrix
D. How NAD+ Works
1. Cells obtain energy by oxidizing food molecules
2. Coenzyme NAD is reduced NAD+ + H -> NADH
3. Hydrogen atom consists of a proton and an electron
4. Reduction is the addition of an electron, oxidation is the removal of an electron
5. When one molecule is reduced another must be oxidized
6. NADH serves as an electron carrier that can donate its hydrogen
Definitions for chapter 8 can be found here.
REFERENCES:
Mader, Syliva S. Human Biology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill (2008).
Links provided throughout the summary take you to online sources.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Any time "text" or "the text" is referenced in the above summary, I am referring to the textbook Human Biology by Sylvia Mader (cited directly above).
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